As ruler of Egypt (1805–48), Muhammad \'Ali Pasha carried out an intense modernisation policy. He hired European professionals and technicians and removed obstacles to the activities of European immigrants.

Charles Nicolle (1866–1936) was a French physician and biologist. After a successful career in France, he took over as head of the Pasteur Institute of Tunis in 1902. Soon afterwards, the government provided him with new enlarged facilities for the institute (1903–06).

Under Charles Nicolle’s guide, the Pasteur Institute in Tunis soon became a world-famous centre for bacteriological research and for the production of vaccines and serums to combat most of the prevalent infectious diseases. He carried out ground-breaking research on several infectious diseases that earned him the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1928.

After his years as the Bey’s envoy in Paris, Khair al-Din served as Tunisian minister of navy (1857–62) and prime minister (1873–77). The author of an influential book advocating constitutional government, the parliamentary system and the protection of individual liberty, he founded Sadiqi College (1875), which educated generations of Tunisia’s modernist elite.

Rodolphe d’Erlanger (Boulogne-Billancourt 1872 – Tunis 1932) was a painter and music scholar. Born in France to an aristocratic family of bankers, he moved to the UK and took British citizenship, before going to Tunisia in 1909 for health reasons. He later settled in Sidi Bu Said, near Tunis, and carried out monumental research on Arab music.

Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) was a niece of the British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. In 1810, she left England for the Middle East, where she lived for the rest of her life, travelling extensively. An assertive, unconventional woman, she adopted male Eastern dress. Her final home was in an abandoned convent in the mountains near Sidon (nowadays in Lebanon).

General Khair al-Din was a Circassian slave. He was raised in Istanbul by an Ottoman family, receiving a good education. Sold to a Tunisian envoy, he entered the court of Ahmad, Bey of Tunisia, where he continued his education. In 1846, he went to France as part of Ahmad Bey’s staff. He returned to France several times, spending years in Paris on governmental missions.

Paul Draneht Pasha was born in Cyprus and grew up in Egypt. He was educated in France, made a brilliant career working for the Khedive of Egypt, married an Italian woman, had a Greek brother-in-law and bought his family house in Italy.

Paul Draneht Pasha was born in Cyprus and grew up in Egypt. He was educated in France, made a brilliant career working for the Khedive of Egypt, married an Italian woman, had a Greek brother-in-law and bought his family house in Italy.

Paul Draneht Pasha was born in Cyprus and grew up in Egypt. He was educated in France, had a brilliant career working for the Khedive of Egypt, married an Italian woman, had a Greek brother-in-law and bought his family house in Italy.

Paul Draneht Pasha was born in Cyprus and grew up in Egypt. He was educated in France, made a brilliant career working for the Khedive of Egypt, married an Italian woman, had a Greek brother-in-law and bought his family house in Italy.

During the 19th century, many European diplomats lived in Arab and Ottoman countries and vice versa. For example, in the 1830s there were 14 foreign consulates in Tunis. Ottoman Sultan Salim III (1789–1806) opened the Empire’s first embassy in London in 1793, followed by others in Paris, Berlin and Vienna. In the early 19th century, Morocco had ambassadors in St Petersburg, London and Berlin.

Paul Draneht Pasha was born in Cyprus and grew up in Egypt. He was educated in France, made a brilliant career working for the Khedive of Egypt, married an Italian woman, had a Greek brother-in-law and bought his family house in Italy.

Under Charles Nicolle’s guide, the Pasteur Institute in Tunis soon became a world-famous centre for bacteriological research and for the production of vaccines and serums to combat most of the prevalent infectious diseases. He carried out ground-breaking research on several infectious diseases that earned him the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1928.

Charles Nicolle (1866–1936) was a French physician and biologist. After a successful career in France, he took over as head of the Pasteur Institute of Tunis in 1902. Soon afterwards, the government provided him with new enlarged facilities for the institute (1903–06).

Vittoria Aganoor Pompilj was the child of an aristocratic Armenian family who had migrated first to Persia, then to India in the 16th century, and eventually to Europe in 1835. Fond of Armenian culture and language, they settled in Venice to be near the Mekhitarist Congregation monastery. The Mekhitarists were active agents of Armenian cultural revival.

Under Charles Nicolle’s guide, the Pasteur Institute in Tunis soon became a world-famous centre for bacteriological research and for the production of vaccines and serums to combat most of the prevalent infectious diseases. He carried out ground-breaking research on several infectious diseases that earned him the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1928.