Public personalities such as ‘Ali Pasha often established a madrasa as a sign of prestige and as a public expression of their commitment to traditional Islamic teaching. Theologians and public servants were trained in madrasas like this one, devoted to the study of Islamic jurisprudence according to the Malikite madhhab (juridical school).

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Madrasa al-Bashiya offered traditional Islamic teaching and prepared students for advancing to the Zaytuna University nearby. In the 19th century, its role became limited, and it was transformed to provide lodgings for the students of the Zaytuna.

Memorising the Qur’an and rendering its message in writing were still important steps in the education of a 19th-century Muslim child. The child who owned this board would not only have copied the Qur’anic verses but also recited them, with the aim of successfully committing them to memory.

Traditional Islamic education emphasised memorisation of the Holy Qur’an, the study of hadith, grammar, Islamic jurisprudence and other related subjects such as philosophy and astronomy. In the 19th century, European-inspired schools were founded in the Arab and Ottoman world, coexisting with traditional institutions.

Although unexpected, a close connection exists between the first modern Turkish painters and the military academies in Istanbul. In addition to technical subjects art was taught to enable students to draw strategic maps. Some used their skills to realise their artistic potential.

The artist Halil Pasha studied at the Mühendishane-i Berr-i Hümayun (Engineering School for Armed Forces). This Ottoman military school, opened in 1795, offered a curriculum including mathematics, French and even art. For some students, such as Halil Pasha, the school offered an opportunity to develop their artistic skills beyond their practical requirements.

The artist Halil Pasha attended one of the modern military academies first founded in Ottoman Turkey towards the end of the 18th century. Military academies, the first based in Istanbul, provided advanced education aimed at future officers and senior army personnel.

Pupils at Qur’anic schools were traditionally seated in a circle around their teacher, the muwaddib. Pupils would learn the Qur’an, Islamic principles and basic rules of the Arabic language.

Traditional Islamic educational institutions included the kuttab (a Qur’an school for children) and the madrasa, which provided advanced teaching. In Tunis, Fez and Cairo some madrasas were further connected to a centre of advanced knowledge, a mosque / university like the Qarawiyyin (founded by a woman, Fatima al-Fihriya), al-Azhar and the Zaytuna.

Butrus al-Bustani was one of the leading personalities in the debate about Arab identity in the 19th century. He developed the idea of education as a way to overcome the divisions that existed in Lebanon. In 1863, he established the National School, which offered education to everyone regardless of religious creed.

The School of the Three Doctors in Beirut was first established in 1835. Under secular administration, it provided education based on modern Western standards brought from Europe at the time, rather than on Lebanese standards.

Many Protestant missionary schools sprang up in 19th-century Lebanon. Their sites were chosen to ensure prominent visibility and an authoritative presence in the community they served. The Beirut Evangelical School for Girls and Boys had its roots in an educational institution set up by American Presbyterian missionaries active in Syria and Lebanon in the early 19th century.

Botany became popular in the 19th century thanks to herbariums such as this one. Primary school teachers had their pupils construct herbariums after field trips.

This advanced military school offered a curriculum based on scientific and technical subjects (such as mathematics), literature, Arabic and foreign languages (French and Italian). The polytechnic school of Tunisia offered curricula related to reforms aimed at improving military education and training.

Geology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.

Botany became popular in the 19th century thanks to herbariums such as this one. Primary school teachers had their pupils construct herbariums after field trips.

The need to memorise the Holy Qur’an and render it in writing had given life to an accurate, scientific system of rules. Rules focusing on grammar and the correct pronunciation of words in recitation (tajwid) were essential for memorising the Qur’an. In the 19th century, the problem of how to transfer the recitation signs accurately to the medium of print arose.

Geology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.