Turkey

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© Österreichische Nationalbibliothek© İstanbul Üniversitesi© İstanbul Üniversitesi© MSGSÜ© Bursa Basın Tarihi Müzesi

‘Abd-al-Hamid (Abdülhamid) II (1842–1918)
After 1876
Austrian National Library, Vienna, Austria

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Portrait Album – Ottoman State Officers
Late 19th century – beginning of the 20th century
Istanbul University, Nadir Eserler Kütüphanesi (Rare Books Library), Istanbul, Turkey

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The Railway Bridge from Anatolia
Late 19th century – begining of the 20th century
Istanbul University, Nadir Eserler Kütüphanesi (Rare Books Library), Istanbul, Turkey

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Beethoven at the Palace
1915
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Painting and Sculpture Museum, Istanbul, Turkey

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Hüdavendigar Paper in Armenian
1869
Bursa Basın Tarihi Müzesi, Bursa, Turkey

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Reforms and modernisation

Dramatic losses experienced by the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century caused the rise of reform and modernisation movements, which aimed to stop the disintegration process, stabilise the economy, increase military power and restore national and international security. The Tanzimat Edict, which was issued during the reign of Abdülmecid on 3 November 1839, and the Islahat (Reformation) Edict, issued on 18 February 1856 after the Paris Treaty of 1856, following the Crimean War with Russia, represent some of the achievements of these movements. Thus, the non-Muslim population of the Ottoman Empire gained equal rights with the Muslim population, and the equality of all citizens before the law was declared.

The Young Turks, consisting of army officers and well-educated individuals, began loudly to defend ideas of freedom, justice and liberty as a cure for the disintegration process experienced by the Ottoman Empire. Namık Kemal, Ziya Paşa and Mithat Paşa, all of whom were the leading figures of these ideas, forced Sultan Abdülhamid II’s hand and, in 1876, a constitutional monarchy was declared. The First Constitutional Law of the Ottoman Empire was prepared and an assembly was formed that allowed the participation of the people in the administration.