Economic, social and cultural life (1815–1920)

France retains rural specificity and, thanks to its transport network system (especially the railways), develops the textile and chemical industries among others. This leads to significant urbanization and rural exodus.

A major construction policy accompanies the growth: the urban reorganisation of Paris; the construction of works of art, among others the World Expos (Expositions universelles). The World Expos/Universal Exhibitions make it possible to disseminate public awareness about and to celebrate inventions and achievements such as the Eiffel Tower (1889).

The demographic transition starts with advances in hygiene and healthcare. With the Ferry Laws (1881–2) education becomes compulsory, secular and free. Other social developments are equally progressive, such as the right to strike (1864) and Trades Unions (1884).

Cultural life also undergoes some major changes: the rights of everybody to gain access to books, the birth of photography and the development of the printing press. New artistic movements such as Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism and Impressionism succeed in making Paris an international cultural capital.