Botany became popular in the 19th century thanks to herbariums such as this one. Primary school teachers had their pupils construct herbariums after field trips.

Geology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.

Botany became popular in the 19th century thanks to herbariums such as this one. Primary school teachers had their pupils construct herbariums after field trips.

The need to memorise the Holy Qur’an and render it in writing had given life to an accurate, scientific system of rules. Rules focusing on grammar and the correct pronunciation of words in recitation (tajwid) were essential for memorising the Qur’an. In the 19th century, the problem of how to transfer the recitation signs accurately to the medium of print arose.

Geology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.

Conveying the numerous discoveries in the fields of chemistry and physics in the 19th century became widespread in primary and secondary education. Before long, experiments could be carried out in class using specialist equipment such as this Bunsen burner.

The question of teaching art at school concerned European pedagogues in the 19th century. Some believed it constituted essential knowledge, elevating the mind, while others found such teaching to be of secondary importance. In France in the late 19th century, following a long debate, this subject was introduced into primary schools.

The teaching methods of Maria Montessori, a doctor, revolutionised education. This early photograph, taken in Italy, shows the principles of this method, in which each child advances at his or her own pace through the medium of sensory discovery.

The teaching methods of Maria Montessori, a doctor, revolutionised education. This early photograph, taken in Italy, shows the principles of this method, in which each child advances at his or her own pace through the medium of sensory discovery.

Certificates of studies completed were of great importance to the recipients, who kept them carefully. They were therefore lettered with care. This Lebanese baccalaureate certificate written in French demonstrates the importance of French influence on the education system in Lebanon.

Geology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.