Initiated by Muhammad ‘Ali of Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and his son ‘Abd al-Majid I, al-Nahda and Tanzimat was a period of intellectual modernisation and reform that touched upon all aspects of life in the Arab and Ottoman worlds. This “awakening” and “restructuring”, aimed at bridging the gap between “East” and “West”, was an attempt by the reformer-rulers of Egypt, the Ottoman Empire and Tunisia to catch up with the “West”. These reforms, though sometimes successful, were frequently executed with excessive cruelty. Inspired by the West (Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt), al-Nahda began in Egypt and later spread to the Ottoman world and North Africa. Nevertheless it was the outcome of deep, underlying internal socio-political and economic changes in the “East”. Cairo, Istanbul, Beirut, and Tunis were the focal points of this renaissance.
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Working Number | Name | Holding Museum | Date | Materials | Curator Justification |
FR 197 | Napoleon returning from the Island of Elba | National Library of France | uncertain | | Napoleon Bonaparte (1769‒1821), from a young military leader in 1793, rose to become the First Consul in 1800 and Emperor of France in 1804. Under his direction, economic, legal and educational reforms were initiated and the Napoleonic Code was established. His invasion of Egypt (1798‒1801) had long-term consequences.
| ET1 003 | Muhammad 'Ali Pasha | Bibliotheca Alexandrina | 19th century | | Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha (c.1769‒1848) was the founder of modern Egypt. His reign marks a period of rapid and sometimes cruel reform and modernisation of the military, administrative and educational systems; his economic reforms in general and agricultural reforms in particular were especially hard on the Egyptian people.
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ET1 086 | Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al–Tahtawi | Bibliotheca Alexandrina | | | Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al-Tahtawi (1801–73) was An Egyptian intellectual regarded as the pioneering figure of al-Nahda. Sent to Paris in 1826 by Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha, he returned to Egypt in 1831 to implement reforms summarised in his book Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz (1834) in which, although he embraced French society also held that reforms should go with the values of Islamic culture. | | ET1 063 | Jamal al-Din al-Afghani | Bibliotheca Alexandrina | | | Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839–97) was a religious reformist and political activist whose modernist reinterpretation of Islam was closely connected with an anti-colonial doctrine. He called for pan-Islamic solidarity in the face of European threats.
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ET1 065 | Muhammad Abduh | Bibliotheca Alexandrina | | | Muhammad Abduh (1849‒1905) was an Egyptian reformer and a pupil and follower of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. An unshakable supporter of religious, legal and educational reforms, he is best known for his theological treatise Risalat al-tawhid. He called for the emancipation of Muslim women, arguing that women’s oppression at that time stemmed from the moral disintegration of Muslim society. | ET1 084 | Qasim Amin | Bibliotheca Alexandrina | | | Qasim Amin (1863–1908) was an Egyptian lawyer and activist; the first Egyptian, and the first Arab “feminist” to advocate the liberation of women through education. He is best known for his two books: Tahrir al-Mar’a (The Liberation of Women, 1899/2000) and Al-Mar’a Al-jadida (The New Woman, 1900/2000). | AT 067 | Arabi, Sayed Ahmed Pasha (1841–1911) | Austrian National Library | 1882 | | Ahmed ’Urabi (1841–1911) was an Egyptian nationalist and a colonel in the Egyptian army. As a member of Khedive Tewfik’s government he promoted reforms of Egypt’s military and civil administration. ’Urabi’s revolt of 1879 against Anglo-French domination in Egypt is notable as the first case of Egyptian anti-imperialist nationalism. | PD 029 | Huda Sha‘rawi | | | | Huda Sha‘rawi (1879–1947) was a member of the upper classes of Egypt who communicated in Arabic, French, and Turkish. A political and social activist, her best known book is The Harem Years (1987). | | AT 096 | Mahmud II, Sultan of Turkey (1784–1839) | Austrian National Library | 1st half of the 19th century | | Sultan Mahmud II (1785‒1839) introduced a series of reforms that began in 1839. The reforms, which encouraged Ottoman patriotism through integration of non-Muslims and non-Turkish ethnic groups into Ottoman society, aimed to prevent the slow decline of the empire. His reforms included changes to the education system and civil liberties, and the establishment of state-run postal and telegraph services, newspapers and railways.
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AT 092 | Abdul-Mejid I, Sultan of Turkey (1823–1861) | Austrian National Library | c. 1850 | | ‘Abd al-Majid I (1823–61) succeeded his father Mahmud II in implementing a series of political, economic and civil reforms known as Tanzimat within the Ottoman Empire. To this end he established alliances with the UK and France, which had supported the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War against Russia. | | PD 057 | Sharif Husayn ibn 'Ali | | 1916 | | Husayn ibn ‘Ali (1854–1931) was Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908. He declared the Arab Revolt in 1916 against the Ottoman Empire. In 1917 he acquired himself the title Malik bilad-al-Arab (King of Arab Lands), but was recognised internationally only as King of Hijaz. After the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, he proclaimed himself Caliph of all Muslims. Defeated by the Saud family, he abdicated the kingdom and other secular titles added to his name ‘Ali.
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