Migrations | Privateering and captivity in the Mediterranean | Military slaves or Mamluks

Victims of the privateering war, military slaves or Mamluks often formed elite military units in their new homeland.

Slaves obtained in raids along the Mediterranean coasts of Europe and put to military service in the Islamic world were referred to as Western Christian Mamluks. Those bought for the same purpose at Ottoman markets in the eastern Mediterranean, especially in Constantinople, came mostly from Central Asia or Eastern Europe. These slaves – Circassians, Georgians and Greeks among them – became known as Eastern Mamluks. Military slaves were trained at the courts of their overlords for whom they provided protection. Although separated from their roots and homeland, they could rise through the ranks and even strengthen their bonds with the ruling family through adoption or marriage. The Mamluk system continued in Islamic countries such as Egypt and Tunisia until the mid-19th century. After that, armies recruited the sons of the local population.

Working NumberNameHolding MuseumDateMaterialsCurator Justification
SP 036A Mamluk Resting with his HorseNational Museum of Romanticism1827Paper; ink; lithographyThis romanticised European image of a Mamluk resting by the side of his horse belies the martial life and responsibilities of these elite military slaves. Seasoned horsemen and warriors, Mamluks could rise through the ranks to become powerful statesmen and even rulers.

TN 057Khayr al-Din PachaInstitut Supérieur d’Histoire Contemporaine de la Tunisie19th century PaperKhayr al-Din Pasha was a Mamluk of Circassian descent, raised at the court of Ahmad Pasha Bey (1837–55). He later assumed the powerful role of Great Vizier of the Regency of Tunis (1873–77), initiating many crucial policies aimed at reforming the state structure, education and the national economy.

Working NumberNameHolding MuseumDateMaterialsCurator Justification
TN 026Le général Khaireddine (painting) Musée d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine de Kassar Saïd1852Canvas, wood, coloured pigments, gold leaf Khayr al-Din, a Mamluk of Circassian descent, raised at the court of Ahmad Pasha Bey (1837–55). Grand Vizier of the Regency of Tunis (1873–77), his policy for state reform, the modernisation of education and the stabilising of the economy all marked the history of the Regency.
TN 016Dar Hussein18th–19th centuriesMamluk slaves often assumed great importance in the societies of their new homelands. The Dar Hassine was named after its builder, a Mamluk of Circassian descent. A close companion of General Khayr al-Din, the reformer of modern Tunisia, he also served as the first president of the municipality of Tunis (1858–65).

TN 010Sahib el-Tabaa Mosque17th–18th centuriesThis mosque was built by Yusuf Sahib al-Taba’a, originally a captive of Moldavian descent. A favourite and then minister of Hammuda Pasha Bey of Tunis (1782–1814), he also served as Lord Chancellor and superintendent of taxes. In fact, he was the second most important political figure in the Tunis Regency after the bey himself.

AT 075Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha (1769–1849)Austrian National Library1st half of the 19th centuryThe end of the Mamluk system came about in the mid-19th century, partly due to the abolition of slavery. In Egypt, the local Mamluk power structure and its last representatives were eradicated by Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha (1805–48) with the objective of consolidating his absolute power over the country.