- - A.D.
1516 - 1916 A.D.
The region enjoyed relative stability due to being the route of the hajj sharif (pilgrimage) caravans to Mecca. Sultans and governors took great care of the caravans. Khans, water installations and fortifications were built and maintained along the route and military patrols were formed to protect it.
1516 - 1916 A.D.
Between 1516 and the mid-19th century the main interest of the Ottoman authorities in the territories of modern Jordan was to maintain the al-shami pilgrimage route of the holy sanctuaries of Islam in Mecca and Medina. To ensure the safety of the pilgrim caravans good relations were maintained with the local Bedouin tribes. An annual payment was paid by the state (khuwwa or surra) to their chiefs to facilitate the passage of the pilgrims or simply to leave them alone.
1700 - 1750 A.D.
"Palace Schwetzingen" is bulit and flourised under the Palatine Prince Elector Carl Theodor. The baroque castle complex includes more than 100 sculptures and a "Türkischer Garten" ("Turkish Garden") with a mosque, biult from 1779 to 1791, that makes it the earliest mosque- style in Germany and the largest structure of its kind in a german garden. It was designed by Nicolas de Pigage. However the oriental details are not for religious but for decorative purposes.
1700 - 1700 A.D.
In the early 1700s, the (Al-Qasimi) Qawasim confederation migrates to the coast of the Arab Gulf from the Persian littoral. Here, they establish their main base in Julfar (later Ras al-Khaimah), soon extending their sway all along the lower Gulf, across areas of the east coast and towns on the Persian littoral.
1700 - 1750 A.D.
The newly built Palace of Schwetzingen (built on the site of a former palace that actually dates back to 1350) flourishes under the Palatine Prince Elector Karl Theodor. Today a heritage site of great cultural significance, it contains some 100 sculptures and is known for its Türkischer Garten, a garden in the Turkish style with a mosque (constructed 1779–91 and the earliest mosque-style and largest structure of its kind in any German garden), designed by French architect Nicolas de Pigage and with “Oriental” details that are for decorative purposes only.
1701 A.D.
Travellers from Europe approached the notion of the Near East with dreams of a “holy world” and “treasuries of wisdom”. The European desire for the “Orient” arose partly as a result of the Enlightenment, which since the 1800s had already changed the public psyche, filtering down from the rationalism of intellectuals to the scientification of the public. In addition, the many wars of the period, especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced in the people nostalgia; a desire for distance, the unknown, and the halcyon days of the past. Romantic-era authors and philosophers, much disturbed by these very topics (e.g. Friedrich Schlegel), thus attempted to escape into something magical – the “Orient” seemed to them, and their readers, an ideal imaginary world.
1745 - 1747 A.D.
Prussian King Friedrick II commissions G. W. von Knobelsdorff to build Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam.
1765 - 1800 A.D.
In 1765 Imam Muhammad bin Saud establishes the First Saudi State in Arabia, starting with the Najd region, and making its capital the city of Dir‘iyya.
1769 - 1785 A.D.
The era of Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) in literature (i.e. the works of Goethe, Schiller, Hölderlin and Herder) is characterised by lyricism, fantasy, freedom, juvenility and idealism, which is felt most keenly in the dramatic writing of the period.
1770 - 1830 A.D.
The painting by Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, Goethe in der Campagna (1786/87), exemplifies Classicism in art at this time.
1772 - 1807 A.D.
Karl Eugen, Duke of Wittenberg, built three important palaces: one in the centre of Stuttgart, Neues Schloss (1746–1807); Schloss Solitude (1763–9); and Schloss Hohenheim (1772–93).
1777 - 1810 A.D.
Under Queen Maria I (1734–1816) and King João VI (1767–1826) a new neoclassical decorative grammar replaces the dominant rococo style. Besides French and English influences, the main features of the furniture are the carving of classical inspiration and the inlay work using various woods, creating both geometrical and floral compositions.
1780 - 1810 A.D.
The wealthiest among the bourgeoisie begin to undertake more exploratory and scientific journeys to “discover” the rest of the world.
1782 - 1813 A.D.
During the reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, the Regency of Tunis enjoys a thriving economy and an overall sense of security.
1782 - 1813 A.D.
The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia. He made possible the renovation of the city walls of Tunis and the restoration of its fortifications, and undertook similar projects in cities such as Bizerte and Le Kef.
1786 - 1786 A.D.
Scotland’s most famous poet Robert Burns (b. Alloway, Scotland 1759; d. Dumfries, Scotland 1796) is set to immigrate to the West Indies when a collection of his poems, chiefly in the Scottish dialect, is published in the county town of Kilmarnock in 1786. The publication launches Burns’ career.
1786 - 1832 A.D.
The Classical era in literature (i.e. the work of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland and Herder) is characterised by a will to preserve beauty, maintain goodness in order to gain harmony, and sees nature as an entity. The centre for this movement in literature is the city of Weimar.
1787 - 1787 A.D.
Antigüedades Árabes de España published by Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando – it marks the beginning of the rediscovery of the Arab past.
1789 - 1791 A.D.
The Brandenburg Gate is built, today it a famous landmark of German reunification.
1790 - 1853 A.D.
The Romantic movement develops at the beginning of the 19th century under the influence of writers such as François-René de Chateaubriand. The movement, inspired by imagination, individualism, a taste for the outrageous, and exoticism, is marked by the poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine and Victor Hugo and then extends to the theatre with Hugo’s masterpiece Battle of Hernani, and then to literature. Hugo was the uncontested leader of this literary movement. Music and dance were both influenced by Romanticism; in choreography and in costume design (the tutu and points) the feminine was accentuated.
1790 - 1853 A.D.
As in literature, painting sees a similar confrontation between Neoclassicism (e.g. the work of Ingres) and Romanticism, the latter also influencing sculpture. Academicism endured throughout the 19th century (i.e. Bouguereau, Gérôme and Cabanel).
1790 - 1800 A.D.
"Disire for the orient" arises because of the breakovers around 1800, as the Enlightenment already had changed peoples life to a more rationalistic way of thinking and the scientification of the public. Also the sumless wars, especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced nostalgia and desire for the distance, the unknown, the paradise... Authors and philosophers from the era of romanticism bothered this topics (e.g. Friedrich Schlegel) and they tried to escape into something magical- the orient seemed to be a imaginary world.
1790 - 1840 A.D.
The painting by Caspar David Friedrich, Der Wanderer über dem Nebelmeer (1818), exemplifies Romanticism in art at this time.
1790 - 1800 A.D.
Between around 1790 and the early 1800s, threatened by increasing British inroads into traditional Gulf economies and politics, and supported by the Persians and Omanis, the Qawasim attack British vessels to defend their economic empire in the Lower Gulf.
1795 - 1848 A.D.
The era of Romanticism or Blaue Blume in literature (i.e. the works of Tieck, von Kleist, Hebel, Hoffmann, the Brothers Grimm and von Eichendorff) is characterised by the desire for far-away places, and imbued with irony, passion, nocturnal mystery and mythical creatures.
1796 - 1796 A.D.
The residence, Bayt al-Suhaymi is built.
1797 - 1797 A.D.
Austria and France conclude the Treaty of Campo Formio on 17 October. Austria then cedes to Belgium and Lombardy. To compensate, it gains the eastern part of the Venetian Republic up to the Adige, including Venice, Istria and Dalmatia.
1800 - 1820 A.D.
Garden cities – planned urbanisation to overcome the housing crises in growing cities –come into vogue. Examples include Margarethenhöhe in Essen, Dresden-Hellerau and Dresden-Briesnitz.
1800 - 1800 A.D.
The Qawasim possess a fleet of over 700 long-distance trading vessels, venturing all over the Gulf as well as in India and East Africa.
1800 - 1900 A.D.
Some features of 19th-century architecture in Lebanon have their origins in the era of Fakhr al-Din II. He had built khans and caravanserais to encourage trade and he introduced the red-tile technique, which became a typical element in Lebanese architecture. The mashrabiyya (wooden screens), used in buildings of Fakhr al-Din’s era, are still used in 19th-century Lebanese architecture.
1800 - 1800 A.D.
The Kingdom of Great Britain comes into being under the Treaty of Union of the kingdoms of England (which then included Wales) and Scotland on 1 May 1707. It lasts, controlled under a single parliament and government based at Westminster, up until 31 December 1800.
1800 - 1910 A.D.
The era marks the genesis of some of the world’s most popular classical compositions, for example: in 1841 Robert Schumann composes Frühlingssinfonie (Spring Symphony) and in 1859 Johannes Brahms finished the concerto Klavierkonzert Nr.1d-Moll op.15 (Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, Op.15). In 1889 Gustav Mahler’s 1. Sinfonie D-Dur (Symphony No. 1 in D major) is premiered; followed in 1905 by his Kindertotenlieder (Songs on the Death of Children).
1800 - 1850 A.D.
The “Grand Tour” falls out of vogue; it used to be a period of educational travel, popular among the European aristocrats in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its primary destination was Italy. In the second half of the 19th century, vanguard artists no longer looked at Roman antiquities and Renaissance for inspiration.
1800 - 1803 A.D.
Most parts of Arabia become part of the new Saudi State. In 1803, The two holy cities of Mecca (Makkah) and Medina (Madinah), along with the rest of the Hijaz region, join the Saudi State.
1800 - 1814 A.D.
In the Napoleonic age, monumental architecture is intended to celebrate the glory of the new regime. An example of that is the Foro Bonaparte, in the area around the Sforza’s Castle in Milan (a project by Giovanni Antonio Antolini).
1800 - 1800 A.D.
In around 1800, the Sharjah town is estimated to have around 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.
1801 - 1899 A.D.
The arts experience rapid growth with the appearance of new techniques and the emergence of photography and cinema. The female sculptor Camille Claudel was part of this artistic boom. Cultural exchanges with other countries, for example at the International Exhibitions, were extremely fruitful.
1801 - 1801 A.D.
The Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was intended to put an end to what Irish nationalists perceived as the subordination and dependency of Ireland on the British crown, instead contributes to the Irish parliament’s vote to join the union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. On 1 January 1801, Britain, Scotland and Ireland sign the Act of Union and merge, to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
1801 - 1899 A.D.
Around 5 million Germans migrate to the USA to meet the need for manpower there, thanks to industrialisation, especially from the Ruhr region.
1801 - 1899 A.D.
Dance (i.e. the waltz and quadrille), street song and cabaret (i.e. the sentimental and parody) and operetta all caught the popular imagination. Popular novels (i.e. those by Dumas, Sue, du Terrail) enjoyed huge success too, due to serialisation. The fashion world was influenced by publications of specialist journals and department stores where different fashions mark each period (i.e. the crinoline, the corset and millinery fashions).
1801 - 1801 A.D.
Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha commands 6,000 Turkish troops to assist the British in expelling the French from Rashid. For this he is assigned Governor of Egypt.
1801 - 1899 A.D.
The so-called Moorish style recalls the Islamic art of Spain and North Africa between the 12th and 15th centuries, which it is said reached its zenith in the Alhambra. The style became fashionable in the 19th century for several reasons, but not least that technical progress and 19th-century industrialisation made a change in architectural styles both desirable and possible. As communications became easier and faster and people were exposed to other cultures, different styles and their functions were fused together in architecture, often to display their patron’s affluence as travel and education were still expensive. For example, the Dampfmaschinenhaus (the Steam Pump House) in Potsdam (1841–3) was designed by Ludwig Persius to resemble a mosque and the Moorish Villa (Wilhelma Park) in Stuttgart (1846) was probably built by Karl Ludwig van Zanth in the Moorish style for King Wilhelm I.
1802 - 1802 A.D.
The first Chair of Archaeology is appointed at the Christian-Albrechts-Universität in Kiel.
1802 - 1802 A.D.
The Treaty of Paris is signed. Following defeat by Anglo-Ottoman forces, France surrenders to Britain the Egyptian antiquities it has collected. The way is open for British exploration of Egyptian archaeology.
1803 - 1866 A.D.
Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr succeeds his father as leader of the Qawasim. He expands the Qawasim Empire to the east to encompass the areas now known as Khor Fakkan and Kalba. He delegates the administration of key strongholds to his brothers and later to his sons. His half-brother Salih bin Saqr rules Sharjah from 1803 to 1838, followed by his son Saqr bin Sultan (until 1846), and then his son Abdallah bin Sultan (until 1855).
1803 - 1818 A.D.
The third Imam, Saud ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, faces a hostile reaction from the Ottoman Empire through its powerful viceroy in Egypt Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha. After ‘Abd al-‘Aziz’s death in 1814, his son, Abdallah, battles with the Egyptian army in many regions of the state. Finally Dir‘iyya is surrendered, and Imam Abdallah is then taken to Turkey, where he is executed.
1804 - 1804 A.D.
The First Serbian Uprising culminates in the first Serbian Vožd (Grand Leader), a progenitor of the Karađorđević Dynasty, Đorđe Petrović. He is elected, at a gathering of the Serbs at Orašac on the Feast of the Presentation, having won many famous victories against stronger and better-armed Turkish armies at Ivankovac, Mišar and Varvarin. Following the Treaty of Bucharest and the failure of the Uprising, Petrović flees to Austria in 1813, but soon after, eager to continue his efforts at expelling the Turks, he joins the Greek liberation movement. He secretly returns to Serbia in 1817 to discuss a joint plan of action with the Prince of Serbia Miloš Obrenović, but Miloš has him assassinated.
1805 - 1805 A.D.
The Qawasim demand tribute from the British East India Company in exchange for navigational rights in the Gulf; the British then begin military interventions aimed at destroying the economic hegemony of the Qawasim in the Lower Gulf region.
1805 - 1867 A.D.
During this time Egypt is a legally nominal Ottoman province governed by a wali on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan, although de facto it is virtually independent, with its walis styling themselves as Khedives. Despite their legally subservient status, Egypt’s walis enjoy far more political power than their descendants, who, decades later, rule the country as nominally independent sultans and kings.
1806 - 1921 A.D.
The 19th century is the age of rediscovery and of opening up the monuments and sites of the Ancient East to Western civilisation. Most ancient sites of Transjordan such as Petra, Jerash, Gadara (Umm Qays), Amra, Umm al-Rasas, Mushatta and many others are explored, documented and identified during the 19th century.
1806 - 1806 A.D.
The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt are fought – in the midst of the collapse of the Prussian State and abolition of the Holy Roman Empire by Kaiser Franz II – under pressure from Napoleon Bonaparte.
1806 - 1806 A.D.
A temporary Peace Accord is achieved between the British East India Company, represented by Captain David Seton the Resident at Muscat, and Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr. This comes following several incidents labelled by the British as “piracy”, which the Qawasim argue is crucial defence of their existentially important economic interests in the Gulf region.
1807 - 1816 A.D.
First Napoleonic invasion. Prince Regent João (1767–1826, crowned in 1816) transfers the court and the seat of political power to Brazil, avoiding being deposed and replaced by a Napoleonic nominee as in other European kingdoms. In Portugal, Beresford, the British governor, intervenes in Portuguese general politics disregarding national needs.
1807 - 1807 A.D.
On 8 May Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha, the Ottoman Governor of Egypt, gives the order to start digging the Mahmudiya Canal, from the River Nile to Alexandria through al-Buhayra, to transport water and as a route for cargo ships.
1807 - 1837 A.D.
In Milan, Luigi Cagnola completes the construction of the Arch of Peace, started during the Napoleonic age and inspired by the Arc du Carrousel in Paris. The stunning architectures of the Napoleonic age use arches, obelisks and allegorical groups of Roman and French classical inspiration.
1808 - 1808 A.D.
Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha builds Shubra Palace on the site of a former kiosk where walis went for recreation during the Ottoman era.
1808 - 1814 A.D.
The construction of the Yussef Sahib al-Taba‘a Mosque is the last great architectural ensemble overseen by the Husaynid Regency of Tunis. The mosque is the main unit of this integrated complex, known as a kulliye, which also includes a mosque and two madrasas (schools), two mausoleums, a funduq (inn), hammam (steamroom), sabil (public fountain) and a suq (market).
1808 - 1813 A.D.
Guerra de la Independencia (Peninsular War) during the French occupation of the Iberian Peninsula and the rule of King Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte.
1808 - 1808 A.D.
Claudius Rich is appointed East India Company Resident at Baghdad. His work at Babylon and Nineveh stimulates European interest in the archaeology of Iraq. East India Company men play a major role in the exploration and mapping of the Middle East.
1809 - 1829 A.D.
Description de l'Egypte first appears in 1809 and continues to be published as a series until the final volume appears in 1829. It offers a comprehensive scientific description of ancient and modern Egypt as well as its natural history.
1809 - 1810 A.D.
Repeated skirmishes between British and Qawasim vessels are labelled “piracy” by the former and taken as justification to plot the final destruction of the Qawasim by the latter. The British launch naval attacks against the Qawasim strongholds at Ras al-Khaimah along the Gulf and on the Persian littoral. However, the Qawasim succeed in rebuilding their fleet and positions to resume their defensive trade-war against the British and their Omani allies.
1809 - 1809 A.D.
Giacomo Leopardi (1798–1837), philosopher, scholar and one of the greatest Italian poets of all times, writes his first poem.
1809 - 1809 A.D.
Establishment of Berlin’s first university, the Humboldt-Universität.
1809 - 1899 A.D.
The beginning of the independence process in the Spanish territories in South America and Mexico, influenced by the American and French revolutions. The first Declaration of Independence is in Ecuador in 1809 and the American process ends in 1898 with Cuba, followed by the independence of the Philippines and the selling of the Carolinas and the Mariana islands to Germany in 1899.
1810 - 1850 A.D.
Important increase in the arrival of black slaves. The slave market is supplied by seasonal caravans and the Fezzan from Ghadames and the sub-Saharan region in general.
1810 - 1850 A.D.
Travellers and explorers of modern times have scoured and described the Regency of Tunis. Their missions to the region provided occasions to discover the remains of antiquity and open up new fields of research to European scholars.
1810 - 1822 A.D.
In relation to trade policy, Mulay Sulayman opposes the liberalism of his father Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd Allah by passing an edict in 1814 imposing a 50 per cent duty on imports, and takes restrictive measures by banning the export of most Moroccan commodities to Europe, including grain, oil, wool, animal hides and livestock. The years of drought and swarms of locusts that devastated all crops between 1810 and 1816 caused a shortage of basic commodities, price increases and famine, on top of the plague epidemics that swept the country. All of these factors necessarily weakened the country financially and demographically. This could help to explain the inward-looking policies adopted by the sovereign Mulay Sulayman, who—according to some historical sources—claimed that he did not need Europe and hoped that Europe did not need him. A desperate and exhausted Mulay Sulayman resigned and chose his nephew Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham as his successor.
1810 - 1845 A.D.
Taking advantage of treaties known as Capitulations an increasing number of Europeans arrive to seek their fortune in the commerce and industry of the regency, in particular the Leghorn Jews, Italians and Maltese.
1810 - 1930 A.D.
The end of the race in the Mediterranean. For over 200 years the Regency of Tunis saw many free or enslaved Christians arrive from all over the Mediterranean Basin. The Oriental influx is due also to the presence of Turkish power.
1810 - 1810 A.D.
One of the most prominent Macedonian poets, folklorists and educators, Dimitar Miladinov(1810–62) is born in Struga. He spends most of his life teaching in the Ohrid region. His greatest achievement is the collection of folk songs between 1854 and 1860.
1810 - 1830 A.D.
Situated at the confluence of the seas of the Mediterranean, Tunis is seen as a great commercial city that many of her neighbours fear. Food and luxury goods are in abundance and considerable fortunes are created through international trade and the trade-race at sea.
1810 - 1830 A.D.
A masterpiece of Byzantine sculpture, the iconostasis in the Monastery of St John at Bigor near Debar is created in this period by Petre Filipovski Garkata (d. 1854) and his group of craftsmen. Carved in walnut, the iconostasis depicts scenes from the Old and New Testaments and varied floral motifs. This Macedonian master of woodcarving and his associates also executed the iconostases in Lesnovo Monastery.
1810 - 1880 A.D.
A new lifestyle develops in the luxurious mansions inside the medina and also in the large properties of the surrounding area. Mirrors and consoles, chandeliers from Venice etc., are set alongside Spanish-North African furniture. All manner of interior items, as well as women’s clothing and jewellery, experience the same mutations.
1810 - 1880 A.D.
Buildings present innovation in their architecture, decoration and positioning. Palaces, patrician houses and mosques incorporate elements of Baroque style; new European techniques and decorative touches that recall Italian arts are evident at the same time as the increased use of foreign labour.
1810 - 1920 A.D.
Multiple exploratory missions and studies scoured the Regency of Tunis. These missions provided the first opportunity to discover the remains of antiquity and to open up new fields of research.
1811 - 1811 A.D.
A commission under the chairmanship of Franz von Zeiller drafts the General Civil Code.
1811 - 1811 A.D.
On 1 March, Muhammad ‘Ali invites some 470 Mamluk beys to the Citadel for a feast to celebrate his son’s imminent departure for Mecca. When the feasting is over the Mamluks mount their lavishly decorated horses and are led in procession down the narrow, high-sided defile, below what is now the Police Museum. As they approach Bab al-Azab, the great gates swing closed and gunfire rains down on them from above. After the fusillades, Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers wade in with swords and axes to finish the job. Legend relates that only one Mamluk escaped alive, leaping over the wall on his horse.
1811 - 1886 A.D.
Franz Liszt is born in Austria. He becomes one the leading composers and a piano virtuoso of the 19th century. He dies in Bayreuth.
1812 - 1812 A.D.
Spain's first Constitution of 1812, influenced by the French Revolution, is revolutionary because it declares the Spanish American colonies to be provinces and all their inhabitants citizens. The constitution reduces some of the powers and privileges of the monarchy, aristocracy and church and will influence future post-independence South American constitutions. Up to 1876 Spain will change its constitution four times (1837, 1845, 1869, 1876).
1812 - 1817 A.D.
John Lewis Burckhardt from Switzerland journeyed to the “Orient”, especially to Aleppo in Syria, to study the Near East and Islam. While there, under the pseudonym Sheikh Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah and living as a Muslim businessman, he not only translated from English to Arabic Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, but also rediscovered the city of Petra (Jordan) in 1812.
1812 - 1812 A.D.
After the Russian–Ottoman war of 1806–12 Russia annexes the eastern part of Moldavia (Bessarabia).
1813 - 1813 A.D.
The Valençay Treaty ends the war between Spain and France. Return of King Fernando VII and absolutist restoration.
1813 - 1813 A.D.
Gheorghe Asachi teaches a class of drawing and history of art at the School for Surveying Engineers (Moldavia).
1813 - 1815 A.D.
The Liberation Wars (and the decisive Battle of Leipzig in 1913) were between Napoleon Bonaparte’s French troops and Central Europe; Napoleon is overthrown.
1814 - 1814 A.D.
The first book in Macedonian, History of the Frightening and Second Communion of Jesus, written by Joakim Krchovski (c.1750–1820) is published in Budim. Krchovski was a herald of the Macedonian cultural revival and went on to publish more books on religious matters. In the early 19th century in Macedonia only priests and other Christian dignitaries were educated enough to enlighten Macedonian people through literature in their mother tongue.
1814 - 1815 A.D.
The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) decides on territorial realignment and the constitutional restoration of Europe.
1814 - 1814 A.D.
The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, comes to an end.
1814 - 1814 A.D.
Sharjah becomes the main seat of the ruling Sheikh, Sultan bin Saqr al-Qasimi I, and the centre of the government of the Sharjah Emirate.
1814 - 1814 A.D.
Abdication of Napoleon I on 6 April sees the end of the First French Empire (1804–14).
1814 - 1815 A.D.
The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) saw the restoration of the political state (the 1792 Ancien Régime), realignment of the borders, and creation of a loosely arranged German Bund (Federation).
1814 - 1814 A.D.
Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society) prepares the ground for the Greek Revolution.
1814 - 1815 A.D.
The Great Peace Congress is held in Vienna from 18 September 1814 to 9 June 1815. Clemens Wenzel Duke of Metternich organises the Austrian predominance in Italy. Austria exchanges the Austrian Netherlands for the territory of the Venetian Republic and creates the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
1814 - 1815 A.D.
First Restoration: the return of the monarchy, referred to as the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) facilitated this by accepting a return to the monarchy by means of the Charter of 1814. This Charter combined the more moderate ideas of the Revolution with certain monarchist traditions.
1815 - 1830 A.D.
Second Restoration: the reign of Louis XVIII and his brother Charles X. France experiences an economic boom (i.e. the development of the railways), but discontent grows over the king’s authoritarian policies.
1815 - 1848 A.D.
The development of transport networks: the creation of railway lines from 1832, expansion of the road network and construction of a large number of canals.
1815 - 1848 A.D.
An estimated 60,000 German citizens leave the territory that later becomes the German Bund (Federation).
1815 - 1859 A.D.
Italy is an agricultural country. Political fragmentation is an obstacle to trade and economic development. The different states use not only different currencies, but also different systems of measurement.
1815 - 1866 A.D.
German Confederation.
1815 - 1860 A.D.
Italian “Risorgimento” (movement for national unification).