Reforms and Social Changes | Education | Pedagogy and knowledge

“Stand for the teacher and honour his rank ...
... for a teacher is almost as a prophet”
Ahmad Shawqi

In the 19th century, pedagogy advanced significantly in Europe as a result of the democratisation of certain subjects such as geography and the visual arts and the multiplication of resources supporting education (for example, cheaper schoolbooks, wall maps, equipment for experiments). The training received by teachers became increasingly more suited to their future teaching tasks in specialist teacher training establishments, such as the French écoles normales. Different pedagogic methods found success; one example was Montessori teaching, introduced in Italy in the 1900s, which is based on sensory awareness.

Working NumberNameHolding MuseumDateMaterialsCurator Justification
IT1 044Primary students at a village school in central Italy, which followed the teaching methods introduced by Maria MontessoriArchivio Tela Umbra1910The teaching methods of Maria Montessori, a doctor, revolutionised education. This early photograph, taken in Italy, shows the principles of this method, in which each child advances at his or her own pace through the medium of sensory discovery.

IT1 045Primary students at a village school in central Italy, which followed the teaching methods introduced by Maria MontessoriArchivio Tela Umbra1910The teaching methods of Maria Montessori, a doctor, revolutionised education. This early photograph, taken in Italy, shows the principles of this method, in which each child advances at his or her own pace through the medium of sensory discovery.

PT 096Gas burnerNational Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbonc. 1900–20MetalConveying the numerous discoveries in the fields of chemistry and physics in the 19th century became widespread in primary and secondary education. Before long, experiments could be carried out in class using specialist equipment such as this Bunsen burner.

PT 097Aegilops ovata L.National Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon1840Pressed and dried plant, glued on paperBotany became popular in the 19th century thanks to herbariums such as this one. Primary school teachers had their pupils construct herbariums after field trips.

PT 098Thymus ciliatus Benth. Presently: Thymus munbyanus subsp. coloratus (Boiss. & Reut.) Greuter & BurdetNational Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbon1850Pressed and dried plant, glued on paperBotany became popular in the 19th century thanks to herbariums such as this one. Primary school teachers had their pupils construct herbariums after field trips.

PT 099Homarus hakelensis Fraas 1878 and clupeomorph fishesNational Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of LisbonCenomanian, Upper Cretaceous (c. 95 million years)Plate of lithographic limestoneGeology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.

PT 100AzuriteNational Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbonc. 1920Azurite crystalsGeology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.

PT 101VanadiniteNational Museum of Natural History and Science (MUHNAC) / Museums of the University of Lisbonc. 1839Vanadinite crystals on matrixGeology, mineralogy and the study of fossils advanced significantly in the 19th century. Samples such as this one were collected to be shown to museum visitors or in schools.

UA 030Lithographed Qur’an, originally written by Shukr Zadeh (d. AH 1166 / AD 1753)Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilisation / Sharjah Museums DepartmentHegira 1266 / AD 1850Lithographed ManuscriptThe need to memorise the Holy Qur’an and render it in writing had given life to an accurate, scientific system of rules. Rules focusing on grammar and the correct pronunciation of words in recitation (tajwid) were essential for memorising the Qur’an. In the 19th century, the problem of how to transfer the recitation signs accurately to the medium of print arose.

FR 079Art exhibition at school, 12–25 June, 1904National Library of France 1904The question of teaching art at school concerned European pedagogues in the 19th century. Some believed it constituted essential knowledge, elevating the mind, while others found such teaching to be of secondary importance. In France in the late 19th century, following a long debate, this subject was introduced into primary schools.

LB 092Lebanese Bachelor degree diplomaMinistry of Education and Fine Arts1913Certificates of studies completed were of great importance to the recipients, who kept them carefully. They were therefore lettered with care. This Lebanese baccalaureate certificate written in French demonstrates the importance of French influence on the education system in Lebanon.